"Abstract
This review investigates the long-term sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein persistence following COVID-19 vaccination, its immunopathology, its impact on host immunity, and potential strategies for its neutralization or elimination. The urgency with which vaccines were required at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic led to a failure to consider the adverse long-term effects of the spike-protein in the mRNA vaccines developed by leading manufacturers... A total of 420 studies were identified for potential inclusion, with a final 40 meeting the criteria for inclusion in the spike protein neutralization, elimination, or removal assessment...
Introduction
... The long-term sequelae of the viral infection and of the pandemic response measures, including COVID vaccination, treatment with remdesivir, and the widespread in-hospital use of intubation and mechanical ventilation have created a new group of patients with pressing healthcare needs that may not be completely understood...
[T]he sense of urgency created by the mainstream press, leaders of both governmental parties, major government agencies, and uncensored vocal medical professionals led to the swift development, rapid but inadequate evaluation, and expeditious Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of vaccines specifically designated only for 'emergency use' in less than a year...
Several studies have subsequently demonstrated that full-length spike protein, unbound by antibodies, continues to circulate for an extended period post-vaccination, occasioning significant morbidity and mortality...
Thematic Analysis of Spike Protein Neutralization/Removal studies
There are several specific and non-specific techniques to countering spike proteins or spike protein mediated injury in COVID-19 vaccinated individuals. The positive effects of the approaches are attributed to the nature of their interaction with the spike protein, which range from antibody cleavage of specific cites of the spike protein to the hemodialysis removal of noxious microRNA cargo via a hemopurifier...
Discussion
... Neutralizing antibodies (nAbs), including monoclonal Abs, have been extensively studied for their spike protein removal/neutralization. Several nAbs have been isolated from COVID-19 convalescent patients or vaccinated individuals and have shown potent neutralization activity against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants of concern (VoCs) in vitro and in vivo...
... [S]ome engineered proteins have been designed to bind to the spike protein and prevent its attachment to host cells or neutralize its activity...
Green tea has also been proposed by two studies as a possible spike protein removal compound. Green tea contains various bioactive compounds, including catechins, caffeine, and amino acids that have health benefits. One of the main catechins in green tea is EGCG, which has been mentioned above as a polyphenol that can inhibit the spike protein-ACE2 interaction...
Other natural compounds have also shown the possibility of inhibiting or preventing the binding of spike protein to ACE2. For instance, polyphenols are a class of antioxidants that have been found to have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-coagulant properties. Certain polyphenols, such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), quercetin, and curcumin have been reported to block the interaction between the spike protein and ACE2 in vitro. Antioxidants, including vitamin C, vitamin E, and glutathione have also been suggested to modulate the immune response and reduce the severity of COVID-19...
Conclusion
... Antibodies, including neutralizing and monoclonal antibodies seem to be the most promising approach to the removal/neutralizing of spike proteins. Other approaches discussed in [this] paper and which require further research include natural compounds (polyphenols, antioxidants, urea); engineered proteins (Designed ankyrin repeat proteins, Nattokinase); radiation therapy; green tea (epigallocatechin gallate); and nanomaterials."
Petrosino S, et al. © (2024)
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